chemicals

News Releas
East Rutherford, NJ., Sept. 16 -- Cambrex Corporation (NYSE: CBM) announced today that its Continuous-Flow Microwave-Assisted Organic Synthesis (CF-MAOS) technology has been accepted as a nominee for the 2009 Innovations Awards at CPhI, an important upcoming pharmaceutical ingredients exhibition to be held in Madrid, Spain.
The CF-MAOS technology represents a dual technological breakthrough, allowing both the scale-up of microwave-assisted chemistry and the handling of heterogeneous mixtures in continuous-flow. This new technology will finally bring the benefits of both technologies out of the laboratory and into production. The CaMWave(TM) KiloLAB flow reactor is capable of manufacturing in excess of 20 kilograms of product per day, and combined with larger reactors, can generate more than one hundred metric tons of product per year. This versatile technology facilitates faster, cleaner, more reliable reactions, leading to improved productivity and lower manufacturing costs.
The technology will be presented during the CPhI Innovation Awards: Title: Microwave Chemistry - Out of the Lab and Into ProductionSpeaker: Dr. Jayne E. MuirDate: October 13, 2009Location: Hall 10, Stand 10G16Time: 11:00-11:20 a.m.Visit Cambrex at CPhI in Madrid at Feria de Madrid Hall 3, Stand 3C70 on October 13-15, 2009.
About Cambrex
Cambrex provides products and services to accelerate the development and commercialization of small molecule therapeutics including active pharmaceutical ingredients ("API"), advanced intermediates, enhanced drug delivery, and other products for branded and generic pharmaceuticals. For more information, please visit Stephanie LaFiura
SOURCE:ir.cambrex.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=80683&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1332730

Tradeshows-biz.com presents one and only information bank for all kinds of details related to chemical tradeshows. Chemical is an immensely used material with incalculable applications. Chemical is an indispensably used material in everyday life. We might not realize but in direct or indirect way, we all use chemical in routine life. The huge consumption of chemicals has boosted the entrepreneurs dealing in chemical industry. Increasing demand and innovations in chemical industry has also amplified the arrangement of chemical tradeshows. Chem expos, Petrochemical trade events, Fertilizer exhibitions etc., are happening more repeatedly than ever. Worldwide occurrence of chemical tradeshows is being more frequent and organized as well. Tradeshows-biz.com has apprehend this trend and quipped itself with complete details of global chemical tradeshows. Here you may browse for all kind of details for chemical tradeshows happening in nook and corner of globe. By clicking on this segment you may get any and every information about venue, schedule, organizer etc., of chemical tradeshows happening across the seas.
SOURCE:tradeshows-biz.com/chemicals/

Trade Shows Name
Start / End Date
Country
O&S
03-Jun-2009 To 05-Jun-2009
Germany
Asia Pacific Coatings Show
03-Jun-2009 To 05-Jun-2009
Malaysia
Seed Agrochem & Irrigation Expo
05-Jun-2009 To 07-Jun-2009
India
ICHEAP & PRES
10-Jun-2009 To 13-Jun-2009
Italy
Escape
14-Jun-2009 To 17-Jun-2009
Poland

Trade Shows Name

Start / End Date
Country
O&S
03-Jun-2009 To 05-Jun-2009
Germany
Asia Pacific Coatings Show
03-Jun-2009 To 05-Jun-2009
Malaysia
Seed Agrochem & Irrigation Expo
05-Jun-2009 To 07-Jun-2009
India
ICHEAP & PRES
10-Jun-2009 To 13-Jun-2009
Italy
Escape
14-Jun-2009 To 17-Jun-2009
Poland

founded in 1997, is the main man-ufacturer of bromide series in China, 5000 tons of bromide series are produced ann-ually in our factory, which are salable in China, and long exported to North America, Europe, Japan, India, Southeast Asia, Taiwan district, and etc. Best quality with reaso-nable price is our tenet to satisfy all our clients.
Our factory was prepared with perfect basic facilities, advanced creative technics, co-mplete test instruments, and in order to protect the environment, we insist on dealing with the three industrial waste, exhaust gas, waste water and the waste residue, which let out up to par.
Our factory was first passed through the ISO9001 international quality system attestation in 2000, and we organize the manufacturing and work the managing strictly complying with the demand.We make hard work to insure the quality superexcel-
lent at home, and on top over the world.
The technic potence is powerful, there are more than ten chemical professionals in our factory, one doctor and two masters are among them. The resource of technic is extensive, we have established permanent cooperative relationship with pharmaceutical institute of Beijing university and Shanghai organic graduate school. In order to satisfy the requirement in market, the center of Long
shen technic research which founded in July, 2000, insistently improves on creative technics and excogitates new products .
SOURCE: longshenchem.com/template/aboute.htm

chemical equilibrium state of balance in which two opposing reversible chemical reactions proceed at constant equal rates with no net change in the system. For example, when hydrogen gas, H 2 , and iodine gas, I 2 , are mixed, and gaseous hydrogen iodide, HI, is formed according to the equation H 2  + I 2  → 2HI, no matter how long the reaction is allowed to proceed some quantity of hydrogen and iodine will remain unreacted. The reason reactants in a reversible reaction are never completely converted to product is that an opposing reaction is taking place simultaneously, i.e., some of the newly formed HI is being converted back into hydrogen and iodine. For any particular temperature, a point of equilibrium is reached at which the rates of the two opposing reactions are equal and there is no further change in the system. This equilibrium point is characterized by specific relative concentrations of reactants and products and will also be reached from the opposite direction, i.e., if one starts with hydrogen iodide and allows it to decompose into hydrogen and iodine. The equilibrium point can be described by the mass action expression, which defines the equilibrium constant, Keq , in terms of the ratio of the molar concentrations of the products to those of the reactants. For the reversible reaction used as an example, the equilibrium constant is Keq =[HI] 2 /[H 2 ][I 2 ]; for the general reversible reaction n A +  m B + · · · [double arrow]   p C +  q D + · · · , the equilibrium constant is: where [A], [B], [C], [D], … are the molar concentrations of the substances and n, m, p, q,  … are the coefficients of the balanced chemical equation. The larger the equilibrium constant for a given reaction, the more the reaction is favored, since a larger value of Keq means larger concentrations of the products relative to the reactants. The equilibrium constant is related to the change in the standard free energy, G °, of the system by the equation Δ G ° = - RT. ln Keq , where R is a constant, T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin, and ln Keq is the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant. Chemical equilibrium can be defined for many types of chemical processes, such as dissociation of a weak acid in solution, solubility of slightly soluble salts, and oxidation-reduction reactions. In all of these cases, the equilibrium constant or its analogue is defined for certain conditions of temperature and other factors. If any of these factors change, the system will respond to establish a new equilibrium,
source:
encyclopedia.com/topic/chemical_equilibrium.aspx

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the capacity of water to consume oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as ammonia and nitrite. COD measurements are commonly made on samples of waste waters or of natural waters contaminated by domestic or industrial wastes. Chemical oxygen demand is measured as a standardized laboratory assay in which a closed water sample is incubated with a strong chemical oxidant under specific conditions of temperature and for a particular period of time. A commonly used oxidant in COD assays is potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) which is used in combination with boiling sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Because this chemical oxidant is not specific to oxygen-consuming chemicals that are organic or inorganic, both of these sources of oxygen demand are measured in a COD assay.
Chemical oxygen demand is related to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), another standard test for assaying the oxygen-demanding strength of waste waters. However, biochemicaloxygen demand only measures the amount of oxygen consumed by microbial oxidation and is most relevant to waters rich in organic matter. It is important to understand that COD and BOD do not necessarily measure the same types of oxygen consumption. For example, COD does not measure the oxygen-consuming potential associated with certain dissolved organic compounds such as acetate. However, acetate can be metabolized by microorganisms and would therefore be detected in an assay of BOD. In contrast, the oxygen-consuming potential of cellulose is not measured during a short-term BOD assay, but it is measured during a COD test.

The chemical reaction campaign has come to an end now that the new European Chemicals law, REACH, has come into force.

However, now the law is in place there is much to be done to ensure that it really does protect us from the worst chemicals; the following web sites can tell you more about what is happening now.

• ChemTrust
• Greenpeace
• Chemicals Health Monitor Project
• International Chemicals Secretariat
• The "substitute it now" campaign against the worst chemicals
• WWF

Read a presentation about the implementation of REACH here

Following an almost nine year long discussion on the European Chemicals policy reform, the new law, REACH, was finally approved on 18 December 2006. REACH, which stands for Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals, is a first modest step by the European Union towards a new approach to chemicals management. It� promises to put an end to public ignorance about the health and environmental effects of chemicals, many of them incorporated in everyday products, and phase out the most hazardous chemicals from the market if safer alternatives are available (the substitution principle).

Under REACH, companies will have to provide safety data for large volume chemicals that they produce or import into Europe, while the use of most dangerous ones (such as the ones causing cancer, infertilities or that persist in our bodies or the environment) will have to be authorized by the European Commission.

REACH will cover 30,000 of the 100,000 chemicals available on the EU market and came into force in June 2007. As a regulation, it will have direct effect in all 27 member states as well as on chemicals and articled imported into the EU.

Unfortunately, REACH also contains many loopholes which will still allow many hazardous chemicals to continue being used in manufacturing and consumer goods. Additional concessions exempt companies which import and manufacture chemicals in volumes below 10 tonnes a year - 60% of chemicals covered by REACH - from the requirement to provide any meaningful safety data. Moreover, many decisions have been postponed to the implementation and future revisions of the law. See timeline

Will REACH deliver?
The loopholes and provisions for self-regulation contained in the law leave REACH very vulnerable to further manipulation by the chemical industry. There remains plenty of room for the chemical industry to manoeuvre around the loopholes to keep hazardous substances on the market, even if safer alternatives exist. The new EU Chemicals Agency in Helsinki will have to be closely monitored to ensure that REACH can deliver. Without the necessary support, hazardous chemicals will continue to contaminate wildlife, our homes and our bodies, and REACH will prove a failure.

This is why in the future we will need to keep careful watch over how the law is put into practice and to ensure that it delivers promised benefits to human health and environment. We will keep informing you on how you can press for change and use REACH to ensure better protection from toxic chemicals for you, your family and your environment.

Pretty much anything you buy - whether it's soap or a computer, perfume or paints - will contain a mixture of substances produced in a chemical factory. Chemicals are used for all kinds of reasons such as to smell nice or to kill germs.
The uncomfortable truth is, more and more research is suggesting that some chemicals are threatening our health with a new kind of pollution that contaminates the bodies of us and our families

Dichromate Reflux Technique Standard Method.

Equipment Required

1. 500-millilitre (ml) Erlenmeyer flask with standard (24/40) tapered glass joints
2. Friedrichs reflux condensers (12-inch) with standard (24/40) tapered glass joints
3. Electric hot plate or six-unit heating shelf
4. Volumetric pipettes (10, 25, and 50ml capacity)
5. Burette, 50 ml - 0.1 ml accuracy
6. Burette stand and clamp
7. Analytical balance, accuracy 0.001gram (g)
8. Spatula
9. Volumetric flasks (1,000ml capacity)
10. Boiling beads, glass
11. Magnetic stirrer and stirring bars

Chemicals Required

1. Potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) 0.25N
2. Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) / silver sulphate (Ag₂SO₄) solution
3. Mercuric sulphate (HgSO₄) crystals
4. Ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS) [Fe(NH₄)₂(SO₄)₂], approximately 0.01N
5. Ferroin indicator (1, 10-phenanthroline and ferrous ammonium sulphate)

Caution: In carrying out the following procedures, use proper safety measures, including protective clothing, eye protection, and a fume hood. Reagents containing heavy metals (HgSO₄ and Ag₂SO₄) should be disposed of as toxic wastes.

Chemical Preparation

1. Dissolve 12.259g of oven-dried (primary standard grade dried at 103^oC to a constant weight) potassium dichromate in distilled water and dilute to 1 litre volume in a volumetric flask.
2. Add 22g of reagent grade silver sulphate to a 4kg bottle of concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) and mix until the silver sulphate goes into solution.
3. Use 1 g of mercuric sulphate (HgSO₄) to complex 100 mg chloride (2,000 mg/l).
4. Dissolve 1.485g of 1,10-phenanthroline monohydrate and 0.695g of ferrous ammonium sulphate heptahydrate in distilled water and dilute to approximately 100ml. (Alternatively, this indicator may be purchased as Ferroin Indicator from most scientific suppliers.)
5. Dissolve 39g reagent grade ferrous ammonium sulphate hexahydrate in distilled water. Add 20ml of concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄). Cool and dilute to exactly 1 litre in a volumetric flask using distilled water. The ferrous ammonium sulfate (FAS) titrant must be standardized daily by the following procedure:

   Dilute 10ml of standard potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) solution to 100ml with distilled water. Slowly add 30ml of concentrated sulphuric acid and cool to room temperature. Titrate with ferrous ammonium sulphate titrant, using 2 to 3 drops (0.10 to 0.15 ml) of Ferroin indicator.

   Normality of FAS = (ml K₂Cr₂O₇)(0.25)
   ml FAS required

   The deterioration of FAS can be decreased if it is stored in a dark bottle.

Procedure

1. Place a 50ml sample or an aliquot diluted to 50ml in a 500ml refluxing flask. The blank is prepared using 50ml of distilled water. This is a precise measurement and a 50ml volumetric pipette should be used. Refer to COD Range
2. Add 5 to 7 glass boiling beads.
3. Add 1g of mercuric sulphate (HgSO₄), 5ml of concentrated sulphuric acid / silver sulphate solution, and mix until the HgSO₄ is in solution. The function of the mercuric sulphate is to bind or complex chlorides. One gram may not be required if the chloride concentration is low. (Caution: Always add acid slowly down the side of the flask while mixing to avoid overheating. It may be necessary to use gloves because of the heat generated.)
4. Accurately add 25ml of 0.25 N potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) and mix.
5. Add while mixing, an additional 70ml of concentrated sulphuric acid-silver sulphate solution.
6. After thorough mixing, attach the flask to the reflux condenser, apply heat, and reflux for 2 hours. Refluxing time can be decreased depending on the ease of oxidation of organic materials. This time may be determined by refluxing for periods from 15 minutes to 2 hours and comparing the results.
7. A reagent blank containing 50ml of distilled water treated with the same reagent as the sample should be refluxed with each set of samples.
8. Cool the apparatus to room temperature after the refluxing period. Wash down the interior of the condenser and flask twice with approximately 25ml portions of distilled water.
9. Remove flask from the condenser and dilute to a final volume of approximately 350ml with distilled water.
10. Add 4 to 5 drops of Ferroin indicator and a magnetic stirring bar.
11. Place flask on a magnetic stirrer and rapidly titrate with 0.1 N ferrous ammonium sulphate to the first red-brown endpoint.

    Caution: Use care in titration. The endpoint is very sharp and may be reached rapidly.

    Formula to determine COD:

    COD (mg/l) = (a-b)(N) x 8,000 / sample size (ml)

    Where:

    a = ml Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 used for blank

    b = ml Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 used for sample

    N = normality of FAS titrant (Fe(NH₄)₂(SO₄)₂)

    ml sample = the actual volume of sample used before dilution

    Sources of Error

    COD Range and Sample Size

    COD Range (mg/l)	50-800	100-1500	240-3700	480-7500	1200-18800	2400-3700	40000-375000
    Volume of Sample (ml)	50	25	10	5	2	1	0.1

    All samples high in solids should be blended for 2 minutes at high speed and stirred when an aliquot is taken. Sample volumes less than 25ml should not be pipetted directly, but serially diluted and then a portion of the diluent removed:

    Elimination of Interference

    One gram of mercuric sulphate (HgSO₄) will complex 100mg of chloride in a 50ml sample (2,000 mg/l). For samples higher in chloride more HgSO₄ should be used in the ratio of 10:1 HgSO₄.

    Interference from nitrites can be prevented by the addition of 10:1 ratio of sulfamic acid:nitrite. The addition of the silver sulphate (AgSO₄) concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) refluxing acid will aid in the oxidation of some organic nitrogen compounds, but aromatic hydrocarbons and pyridine are not oxidized to any appreciable amount.

To visualize a synthesis reaction look at the cartoon
Chemical changes are a result of chemical reactions. All chemical reactions involve a change in substances and a change in energy. Neither matter or energy is created or destroyed in a chemical reaction---only changed. There are so many chemical reactions that it is helpful to classify them into 4 general types which include the following: SYNTHESIS REACTION
In a synthesis reaction two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. Two or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis reaction.
For example, simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas can produce a more complex substance-----water!
The chemical equation for this synthesis reaction looks like:

reactant + reactant -------> product
SOURCE;usoe.k12.ut.us/CURR/Science/sciber00/8th/matter/sciber/chemtype

Cigarettes are one of few products which can be sold legally which can harm and even kill you over time if used as intended.

Currently there are ongoing lawsuits in the USA which aim to hold tobacco companies responsible for the effects of smoking on the health of long term smokers.

Benzene (petrol additive)
A colourless cyclic hydrocarbon obtained from coal and petroleum, used as a solvent in fuel and in chemical manufacture - and contained in cigarette smoke. It is a known carcinogen and is associated with leukaemia.

Formaldehyde (embalming fluid)
A colourless liquid, highly poisonous, used to preserve dead bodies - also found in cigarette smoke. Known to cause cancer, respiratory, skin and gastrointestinal problems.

Ammonia (toilet cleaner)
Used as a flavouring, frees nicotine from tobacco turning it into a gas, found in dry cleaning fluids.

Acetone (nail polish remover)
Fragrant volatile liquid ketone, used as a solvent, for example, nail polish remover - found in cigarette smoke.

Tar
Particulate matter drawn into lungs when you inhale on a lighted cigarette. Once inhaled, smoke condenses and about 70 per cent of the tar in the smoke is deposited in the smoker's lungs.

Nicotine (insecticide/addictive drug)
One of the most addictive substances known to man, a powerful and fast-acting medical and non-medical poison. This is the chemical which causes addiction.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) (car exhaust fumes)
An odourless, tasteless and poisonous gas, rapidly fatal in large amounts - it's the same gas that comes out of car exhausts and is the main gas in cigarette smoke, formed when the cigarette is lit. Others you may recognize are :

Arsenic (rat poison), Hydrogen Cyanide (gas chamber poison)

source: Health Education Authority (UK) - Lifesaver

SOURCE;quit-smoking-stop.com/harmful-chemicals-in-cigarettes

Chromatex chemicals has been the textile industry's expert partner in the field of textile chemicals for many years. Our concepts for pretreatment,dyeing auxiliaries, finishing and textile printing offer high-quality chemicals for textile processing. We are one of the world's top international companies. With our Chroma® & Dura® brands for cellulosic fibres and its blends with polyester, we lead the world in textile chemicals.

Innovative solutions to problems are our speciality - a decided competitive advantage for our customers. A few examples: pH controllers for finished textiles, eco-efficient peroxide killers, multipurpose detergents and product packages for shorter pretreatment and dyeing processes. As a competitive partner to the textile industry, we have marketing companies in most countries of the world. In addition, we can provide the technical services and production sites across the globe.

CHROMA GARNET ABRASSIVES are high quality natural abrasives. Natural garnet grains and powder of all sizes are cost effective, alternative for silica sand, mineral slags and steel grits because of low consumption (kg/m2) and high productivity (m2/hr).

Chromatex Chemicals has its own mines of fine quality green marble. Green marble is available in all sizes.

UNEP Chemicals Branch
The Chemicals Branch works towards making the world a safer place from toxic chemicals by helping governments take needed global actions for the sound management of chemicals, by promoting the exchange of information on chemicals, and by helping to build the capacities of countries around the world to use chemicals safely.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS)
POPs are chemicals that persist, bioaccumulate in plants and animals, are transported long distances in the environment, and are toxic to people. The UNEP Chemicals Branch work on POPs facilitates the negotiations of a legally binding international instrument on POPs and promotes the early reduction and elimination of releases of POPs into the environment through information exchange and capacity building programmes.

OzonAction Branch
Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, countries worldwide are taking specific, time-targeted actions to reduce and eliminate the production and consumption of man-made chemicals that destroy the stratospheric ozone layer, Earth’s protective shield.

GEF Reduction of Persistent Organic Pollutants
In May 2001, governments adopted the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and named the GEF as the Convention's interim financial mechanism, pending entry into force of the Convention. In October 2002, the GEF Assembly approved the addition of POPs as a new focal area.

Global Mercury Assessment
This website supports the process to develop a global assessment of mercury and its compounds, including an outline of options for addressing any significant global adverse impacts of mercury.

Implementation of Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)
The Governing Council of UNEP has requested the Executive Director, as a matter of high priority, to make appropriate provision for the implementation of UNEP’s responsibilities under SAICM and to make provision for activities to support developing countries and countries with economies in transition in implementing the strategic approach to international chemicals management, taking into account the Bali Strategic Plan for Technology Support and Capacity-building.

Lead and Cadmium Activities
UNEP is developing reviews of scientific information on lead and cadmium, focusing especially on long-range environmental transport, as requested by the UNEP Governing Council, in order to inform future discussions of the Governing Council on the possible need for global action in relation to these two heavy metals.

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles Clearing-house
UNEP is the clearing-house for the global Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles, launched by World Summit partners in September 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development.

Chemicals Information Exchange Network
The Chemical Information Exchange Network (CIEN) is a network of people involved in the management of chemicals.

Trade Names of Chemical Products Containing Ozone Depleting Substances and their Alternatives
The service Trade Names of Chemical Products containing ozone depleting substances and their alternatives is designed to help customs officials and National Ozone Units control imports and exports of ozone depleting substances (ODS) and prevent their illegal trade. It is a worldwide database of the commercial trade names of chemical products containing ODS controlled under the Montreal Protocol and their alternatives.

Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land Based Activities (GPA)
The GPA aims at preventing the degradation of the marine environment from land-based activities by facilitating the duty of States to preserve and protect the marine environment.

Director

Is Group Director, Strategy and Business Development at the Dawood Group. He has had the experience of working in senior management positions in multinational and large Pakistani Organizations. He held the position of Finance Director, Supply Chain Director and Head of Business Unit at Reckitt Benckiser (previously Reckitt & Colman) and was the Managing Director Haleeb Foods (previously CDL Foods Limited). He has also been the Financial Advisor at Indus Motor Company Limited. He holds a Masters Degree in Economics and is a Chartered Accountant from the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England & Wales, he joined the ECPL Board in 2006.

Director

Is a Senior Vice President of Engro Chemical Pakistan Limited and Chief Executive of Engro Polymer & Chemicals Limited. He is Chairman and Chief Executive of Engro Polymer Trading (Pvt) Limited and a director of Engro Energy (Pvt) Limited. He has held key assignments at Engro and with Exxon Chemical Canada. A Chemical Engineer by qualification, he joined the ECPL Board in 1997.

Director

Is currently the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Oil & Gas Development Company Limited. He holds a Masters degree in Economics as well as Political Science. He joined ECPL Board in 2002.
Prior to his current assignment, he was the Country Chairman and Managing Director of Caltex Oil Pakistan Limited and has served as a Director on the Boards of Pakistan Refinery Limited and Pak Arab Pipeline Company Limited. He is also a former President of the American Business Council of Pakistan and has undertaken several key assignments with Caltex Oil both in-country and overseas. Arshad is also serving as a Director on the Boards of PIDC and Mari Gas Company Limited.

Chief Executive

Is President and Chief Executive of Engro Chemical Pakistan Limited and Chairman of Engro Polymer & Chemicals Limited, Engro Vopak Terminal Limited, Engro Foods Limited, Engro Energy (Pvt) Limited, Engro Innovative Automation (Pvt) Limited and Advanced Automation LP. He is also a member of the Board of Directors of Oil & Gas Development Company Limited, Pakistan Business Council and Member of the Board of Trustees of Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS). He has held key assignments at Engro and with Exxon Chemical in Canada. A Masters in Business Administration, he joined the ECPL Board in 2000.

Though the periodic table has only 118 or so elements, there are obviously more substances in nature than 118 pure elements. This is because atoms can react with one another to form new substances called compounds (see our Chemical Reactions module). Formed when two or more atoms chemically bond together, the resulting compound is unique both chemically and physically from its parent atoms.

Let's look at an example. The element sodium is a silver-colored metal that reacts so violently with water that flames are produced when sodium gets wet. The element chlorine is a greenish-colored gas that is so poisonous that it was used as a weapon in World War I. When chemically bonded together, these two dangerous substances form the compound sodium chloride, a compound so safe that we eat it every day - common table salt!

In 1916, the American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis proposed that chemical bonds are formed between atoms because -19 coulombs and a mass of 9.11 × 10^-31 kg. Electrons are generally found around the nucleus of an atom, but may be gained or lost during ion formation. Compare to the proton.');">electrons from the atoms interact with each other. Lewis had observed that many elements are most stable when they contain eight electrons in their valence shell. He suggested that atoms with fewer than eight 2 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹; the 3s electron is the only valence electron in the atom. Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom and are the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding.');">valence electrons bond together to share electrons and complete their 2O, oxygen has a valence of two; in CH₄, carbon has a valence of four.');">valence shells.

While some of Lewis' predictions have since been proven incorrect (he suggested that -19 coulombs and a mass of 9.11 × 10^-31 kg. Electrons are generally found around the nucleus of an atom, but may be gained or lost during ion formation. Compare to the proton.');">electrons occupy cube-shaped orbitals), his work established the basis of what is known today about chemical bonding. We now know that there are two main types of chemical bonding; ionic bonding and covalent bonding.

Ionic Bonding
In ionic bonding, -19 coulombs and a mass of 9.11 × 10^-31 kg. Electrons are generally found around the nucleus of an atom, but may be gained or lost during ion formation. Compare to the proton.');">electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another. In the process of either losing or gaining negatively charged electrons, the reacting atoms form ions. The oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces, which are the basis of the ionic bond.

For example, during the reaction of sodium with chlorine:

Notice that when sodium loses its one 2O, oxygen has a valence of two; in CH₄, carbon has a valence of four.');">valence -19 coulombs and a mass of 9.11 × 10^-31 kg. Electrons are generally found around the nucleus of an atom, but may be gained or lost during ion formation. Compare to the proton.');">electron it gets smaller in size, while chlorine grows larger when it gains an additional 2 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹; the 3s electron is the only valence electron in the atom. Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom and are the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding.');">valence electron. This is typical of the relative sizes of ions to atoms. Positive ions tend to be smaller than their parent atoms while negative ions tend to be larger than their parent. After the reaction takes place, the charged Na⁺ and Cl^- ions are held together by electrostatic forces, thus forming an ionic bond. Ionic compounds share many features in common:

• Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals.
• In naming simple ionic compounds, the metal is always first, the nonmetal second (e.g., sodium chloride).
• Ionic compounds dissolve easily in water and other polar solvents.
• In solution, ionic compounds easily conduct electricity.
• Ionic compounds tend to form crystalline solids with high melting temperatures.

This last feature, the fact that ionic compounds are solids, results from the intermolecular forces (forces between molecules) in ionic solids. If we consider a solid crystal of sodium chloride, the solid is made up of many positively charged sodium ions (pictured below as small gray spheres) and an equal number of negatively charged chlorine ions (green spheres). Due to the interaction of the charged ions, the sodium and chlorine ions are arranged in an alternating fashion as demonstrated in the schematic. Each sodium ion is attracted equally to all of its neighboring chlorine ions, and likewise for the chlorine to sodium attraction. The concept of a single molecule becomes blurred in ionic crystals because the solid exists as one continuous system. Forces between molecules are comparable to the forces within the molecule, and ionic compounds tend to form crystal solids with high melting points as a result.

Covalent Bonding
The second major type of atomic bonding occurs when atoms share -19 coulombs and a mass of 9.11 × 10^-31 kg. Electrons are generally found around the nucleus of an atom, but may be gained or lost during ion formation. Compare to the proton.');">electrons. As opposed to ionic bonding in which a complete transfer of electrons occurs, covalent bonding occurs when two (or more) elements share electrons. Covalent bonding occurs because the atoms in the compound have a similar tendency for electrons (generally to gain electrons). This most commonly occurs when two nonmetals bond together. Because both of the nonmetals will want to gain electrons, the elements involved will share electrons in an effort to fill their valence shells. A good example of a covalent bond is that which occurs between two hydrogen atoms. Atoms of hydrogen (H) have one 2 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹; the 3s electron is the only valence electron in the atom. Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom and are the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding.');">valence electron in their first electron shell. Since the capacity of this shell is two electrons, each hydrogen atom will "want" to pick up a second electron. In an effort to pick up a second electron, hydrogen atoms will react with nearby hydrogen (H) atoms to form the compound H₂. Because the hydrogen compound is a combination of equally matched atoms, the atoms will share each other's single electron, forming one covalent bond. In this way, both atoms share the stability of a full 2O, oxygen has a valence of two; in CH₄, carbon has a valence of four.');">valence shell.

1. In order to fully understand the mechanisms of human physiology it is important to have an understanding of the chemical composition of the body. This will come in handy when considering the various interactions between cells and structures. We will gloss over the basic chemistry; however, if there are specific questions with regards to chemistry and its effect on biological function feel free to ask on the forum.

Until this time the unit was well known in industry circles as United Chemicals before being nationalized and renamed as Ittehad Chemicals by the Government and being put under control of the Federal Chemical and Ceramics Corporation Limited (FPCCL). Another Unit, Insecticide Pakistan Ltd., also after nationalization in 1973 and renaming as Ittehad Pesticides Ltd., was later on merged into Ittehad Chemicals Limited. In 1983, the production capacity of Ittehad Chemicals was further increased to 150 MT/day of Caustic Soda and 135 MT/day of Chlorine.

After encountering turbulence through the nationalization phase, Ittehad Chemicals was ultimately privatized in July 1995, with the Management having been taken over by the Chemi Group of Industries. This transition brought with it a new set of challenges, a bold vision and a transformational proactive behavior at the workplace to set in motion a new era of growth and stability.

The present product line includes Caustic Soda (Solid, Liquid and Flakes), Liquid Chlorine, Hydrochloric Acid, Sodium Hypochlorite (Liquid Bleach), Zinc Sulphate Mono, Bleaching Earth (Shaffaf), Sulphuric Acid and Lime, for industrial use.

From a feeble business unit to a robust manufacturing enterprise, the pioneering vision of the Chemi Group of Industries continues to take Ittehad Chemicals to new levels of achievement and success. Success that has evolved from a deep understanding of the business, diversity of enterprise, magnitude of the human skills, and a will to forge ahead with new challenges and objectives in mind.